About Otto Spijkers

Otto Spijkers is Assistant Professor of Public International Law at Utrecht University. He was also guest lecturer at the Université catholique d'Afrique centrale (Yaoundé, Cameroon) and Leiden University. Previously, he was a PhD candidate and lecturer at the Grotius Centre for International Legal Studies at the University of Leiden. His doctoral dissertation, entitled The United Nations, the Evolution of Global Values and International Law, was published with Intersentia in 2011. He also worked as public services coordinator at the Peace Palace Library, as international consultant for the United Nations International Law Fellowship Programme, as intern for the Appeals Chamber of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, and as intern for the Office of Legal Affairs of United Nations Headquarters. Otto Spijkers is also editor and author of the Invisible College Blog, the blog of the School of Human Rights Research. Otto Spijkers studied the basics of international relations at the University of Sussex. He then studied international law at the University of Amsterdam, New York University School of Law (exchange student), and the Hague Academy of International Law (2009 session). He also studied philosophy at the University of Amsterdam and the University of Malta (exchange). He also obtained a Diplôme approfondi de langue française.

Arab Spring in Tunisia

On the 21st of April 2013, the documentary Rouge Parole, by Elyes Baccar, was shown in the Filmhuis of The Hague. The screening was part of the Movies that Matter On Tour Series, organized by Amnesty International The Hague. As is common practice in the series, the screening was followed by a debate between an invited speaker and the audience. This time, the invited speaker was Tarek Hannoudi, a young entrepreneur who came to the Netherlands at the age of 11. He closely follows political and social developments in his native country Tunisia and the Middle East. After the screening, Tarek shared his view on the Arabic Spring and answered questions from the audience. His introductory words were particularly forceful, and this is why I would like to share them with the readers of this blog. The speech is in Dutch:

Zoals de film Rouge Parole, een documentaire over de Tunesische revolutie, heeft laten zien, is een revolutie vooral chaos. Het mooie van zo’n chaos is dat je opeens verplicht bent om een kant te kiezen. Aan de ene kant is er een eensgezind volk dat van een dictator af wil, tegenover een eensgezind overheidsapparaat dat voor een dictator wil vechten. Het contrast is groot. Het volk neemt hier een levensgroot risico door de straat op te gaan, ze lijken er alles voor over te hebben om van de dictator af te komen. De agenten daarentegen nemen het risico om mensen te moeten doden, ze lijken er alles aan te doen om de dictator aan de macht te houden.

 

In een politiestaat waar de agenten al jaren het gezicht van de dictatuur waren, wordt duidelijk dat het leven van deze agenten samenhangt met het leven van de dictatuur. Nu, na de revolutie, het volk heeft gewonnen en de dictator is gevlucht, zijn agenten het nationale pispaaltje geworden. Ik kom later terug op de huidige situatie in Tunesië.

 

Als vrienden of collega’s mij vertelden dat zij ooit wel eens Tunesië hadden bezocht, volgde vaak eerst een klaagzang over de irritante dwingerige verkopers, vervolgd door complimenten over de verwestering van het islamitische land. Er wordt immers gewoon alcohol geschonken. Het straatbeeld wordt niet bepaald door baardmannen of hoofddoeken. Dat wordt door Nederlanders kennelijk geassocieerd met positiviteit en vrijheid…..

 

Wat vroeger tevens opviel, was dat er werkelijk overal op straat posters van Ben Ali hingen. Dat de televisie-uitzendingen aan elkaar hingen van censuur en dat er in iedere Tv-uitzending complimenten gemaakt werden aan het adres van de president. Hij had weer eens wat goeds gedaan. Allemaal pijlen die erop wezen dat we te maken hadden met een dictatuur. Echter, niet een regime dat baarden en hoofddoeken verplicht stelde, maar een dictatuur die dat juist verbood. Je kunt het een omgekeerde Taliban noemen. Echter, voor de buitenwereld wat lastiger te traceren.

Niet alleen de klederdracht werd door de dictatuur bepaald, geloven mocht eigenlijk niet en de vrijheid om te zeggen wat je denkt ontbrak volkomen. Bij Nederlanders lijkt die vrijheid al vanzelfsprekend, Nederlanders staan bekend om hun talent om te klagen. Het überhaupt kritisch mogen zijn.

 

Wij niet. We klaagden eigenlijk nooit. De evolutie bracht ons een overlevingsmechanisme dat inhield dat je mond houden meer overlevingskansen bood dan klagen. We gingen ons focussen op andere dingen. Op voetbal bijvoorbeeld. Bijna alle jongeren in Tunesië waren – of zijn – gokverslaafd, zonder het zelf te beseffen. Ze gokten op voetbalwedstrijden in de hoop hiermee hun leven te kunnen verbeteren. Ze geloofden in die 0,00001% kans om de lotto te gaan winnen. Wanneer men de hoop vestigt op de winkans in een loterij en daarbij iedere week het verdriet (van onderdrukking, werkloosheid en gebrek aan perspectief) wegdrinkt, dan gaat en komt het op een gegeven moment echt niet meer goed met je. Anderen gokken op iets anders, een beter leven in het Westen. Zij gokken op het slagen van een levensgevaarlijke boottocht richting Italië. Maar is er een keuze zonder toekomstperspectief? Zuipen en gokken is niet strafbaar. Klagen wel.

 

Er was geen ruimte voor de mening van de burger. Het deed er niet toe. Men deed maar braaf mee met de rest van de kudde. Uit angst hebben we maar ook elke keer braaf gestemd, dat moest. We moesten laten zien dat we een democratische land waren, mét verkiezingen… Maar we waren vooral onderdrukt stemvee. De uitslag was telkens 99,9% stemmen op Ben Ali en dat elke keer weer. Maar het is natuurlijk heel eenvoudig winnen, als je de enige kandidaat bent en andere kandidaten niet toestaat.

 

Zo’n beetje alles wat een echte bedreiging kan vormen voor het dictatorschap van Ben Ali was verboden. De meeste Tunesiërs hadden de hoop opgegeven dat we ooit een vrij land zouden hebben.

 

23 jaar hebben we de onderdrukking van Ben Ali getolereerd. De 31 jaar daarvoor hadden we de onderdrukking ook al getolereerd, toen hadden we ook een dictator genaamd Bourguiba. Daarvoor waren we gekoloniseerd door de Fransen. Eigenlijk kan ik niet eens terugvinden wanneer we voor het laatst écht een land waren met vrijheid van meningsuiting. Het is nieuw terrein dat we nog moeten ontdekken.

 

17 December 2010. Een straatverkoper stak zich zelf in brand. Hij was het zat… en kennelijk met hem vele anderen. Iedereen ging de straat op. Dégage Dégage voor de dictator en het onrecht. De mensen gingen elke dag de straat op en bezetten de pleinen. Overal in het land was er opstand. De kogels vlogen rond en elke dag vielen er doden, maar wanneer mensen vrijheid willen… is er niets maar ook niets wat hen kan stoppen. De 23 jaar aan onderdrukking, maar ook het economisch onrecht heeft een grens bereikt waarbij men dus liever zichzelf in brand steekt dan blijft leven.

 

Na een belabberde speech van Ben Ali op 13 januari 2011, waarin hij meerdere malen aangaf dat hij het volk had begrepen, beloofde hij meer vrijheid. Hij beloofde ook om de prijs van suiker en melk te verlagen. De reden voor de revolutie is tenslotte een mengeling van ontevredenheid over de politieke vrijheid, maar ook het sociaal economisch onrecht.

 

Die speech heeft niet gewerkt. Dat heeft Ben Ali dit keer ook kennelijk begrepen. De volgende dag (14 januari 2011) sloeg hij op de vlucht. Tot de dag van vandaag hopen we dat hij terugkeert. Om voor de rechter te verschijnen.

Nadat wij een aantal interim regeringen hebben gehad, hadden we eindelijk verkiezingen…. er deden bijna 100 partijen mee! Nieuwe namen (en bijna allemaal met het woordje “democratisch” erin verwerkt), vele logo’s, slogans, nieuwe gezichten. Die partijen beloofden van alles. Vrijheid, werk, alles zou goed komen. Een jaar na de revolutie zouden we, volgens hen, rijker zijn dan het Westen. De werklozen zouden een uitkering krijgen, noem maar op.

 

100 partijen om uit te kiezen. Fatima en Ali raakten de kluts kwijt en wisten het niet meer. Dan maar massaal stemmen op de geloofspartij Ennahda. Dat is een bekende naam voor een partij die gedurende de dictatuur verboden was. In Tunesië zeggen we altijd “Het bekende is beter dan het onbekende”. Ennahda was verboden, dus het tegenovergestelde van de dictatuur, dus een geschikte partij, was de gedeelde redenatie. Ennahda heeft later de verkiezingen gewonnen.

Ennahda heeft een grote fout gemaakt door op de ministerposten, vooral ex-politiek gevangen te plaatsen. In plaats van deskundigheid was het criterium voor zo’n post, het aantal jaren dat men tijdens de onderdrukking in de gevangenis doorgebracht had. Ik denk dat kundigheid veel belangrijker is dan emotie, om de opbouw van een land te realiseren. De bevolking verwachtte veel op de volgende gebieden: economie, veiligheid en vrijheid.

 

Economie


Tunesië heeft niet veel grondstoffen of industrieën. We hebben toerisme en landbouw. We hebben veel hoogopgeleiden, maar deze twee sectoren vereisen geen universitaire opgeleiden maar goedkope simpele arbeiders. Een economische uitdaging waar de overheid nog steeds geen oplossing voor weet. Bourguiba en Ben Ali maakten eerder deze fout al, beiden investeerden wel in onderwijs, maar nooit om de afgestudeerden op te vangen.

 

Nu, twee jaar na de verkiezingen, is de economische situatie alleen maar erger geworden. Toerisme kreeg een klap, die sector bloeit eenmaal niet van een revolutie. Na een revolutie is er een periode van onrust en dan haken de toeristen af.

De regering heeft uit wanhoop iets overgenomen wat we in Nederland ook hadden: Melkert banen. Bijna 1 op de 10 Tunesiërs kreeg zo’n baan. Voor een heel laag salaris werkte men dan voor de gemeente. Men maakte straten schoon of verzorgde parken. Hoe goed zo’n initiatief ook lijkt, hier bouw je als land geen toekomst mee op. Voor de groep hoogopgeleiden wordt niets gedaan. Met straatvegen bouw je als arts of jurist geen cv op, werk je niet aan je toekomst. Stil staan is achteruit gaan. De ontevredenheid onder deze groep is daarom nu ook groot. De overheid is helaas nog steeds visieloos op dit gebied.

 

De Ennahda partij is op zich geen slechte partij, maar om het land op te bouwen is meer inhoud nodig. Zo heeft de partij eigenlijk geen economische agenda. Als partij vond men dat geloof prominent aanwezig moest zijn binnen de staat. Over economische vraagstukken hebben ze voor alsnog nooit nagedacht.

 

Vrijheid


Ja, we hebben nu veel meer vrijheid. Voor de revolutie had ik dit stuk niet mogen schrijven van mijn ouders. Had ik geen lezing mogen geven voor Amnesty International. Dan had de ambassade zonder twijfel mijn naam genoteerd en alles wat ik gezegd had. Bij het eerste bezoek aan Tunesië had ik de veiligheidsdienst dan mogen uitleggen hoe het in elkaar zit. Met alle gevolgen van dien.

 

We zijn blij met de vrijheid en iedereen maakt er gebruik van. Vroeger moest ik uitkijken met wie ik het over politiek had. In het dorpje waar ik ben geboren (Jerissa), was er een van de zes koffiehuizen waar voornamelijk hogeropgeleiden kwamen. In dat koffiehuis waren er twee beruchte tafels bemand. Aan die tafels werd er over politiek gesproken. Aan de ene tafel zaten de linkse socialisten en aan de andere tafel de gelovigen. Volgens de gelovigen waren de linkse socialisten een stel afvalligen die god niet vrezen. Volgens de socialisten waren de gelovigen een stel ouderwetse barbaren. De ene groep droomde van een grote Arabisch Staat, de andere groep van een Islamitisch Kalifaat.

 

Tot op de dag van vandaag strijden deze twee groepen met elkaar. Je vraagt je af of zij elkaar wel de vrijheid zullen gunnen als een van de twee groepen aan de macht zou komen.

Nu zijn de gematigde moslims aan de macht in Tunesië. De socialisten groeien erg hard de laatste tijd. Dezelfde haat (aan die twee tafels in dat ene koffiehuis in mijn dorpje) zie je nu op nationaal niveau.

 

Ik heb het tot nu toe gehad over twee machtsblokken in Tunesië. De gematigde moslims vertegenwoordigd met Ennahda en de socialisten verzameld in een partij genaamd “Het volksfront”. Bij mijn omschrijving van het derde machtsblok, die zichzelf beschouwt als liberaal, zie ik eerder een verzameling van oude gezichten uit de tijd van Ben Ali en Bourguiba. Deze partij heet Nidaa Tounes. De lijsttrekker hiervan is Essebsi. Hij was in de jaren zestig de minister van binnenlandse zaken en geeft toe dat hij verkiezingen heeft vervalst voor Bouguiba. Iemand die een verkiezing heeft vervalst, wil nu staatshoofd worden….

 

De gevaren vanuit het buitenland


In 2006 waren er verkiezingen in Palestina. De Arabische landen en het Westen vonden dat Hamas mee moest doen, want dat was goed voor de democratie in het land. Hamas verraste iedereen en had de verkiezingen met een grote meerderheid gewonnen. Voor velen een onaangename verrassing. Veel landen hebben toen hun conclusie getrokken: Democratie in de Arabische wereld kun je maar beter niet meer aan het toeval overlaten. Je kunt beter verkeerde presidenten (dictators) of landen steunen als land, om een vinger in de pap te houden, ten goede aan eigen belang. Deze rol met verkeerde intenties spelen momenteel vooral landen uit het Midden-Oosten nu richting Tunesië. Directe of indirecte politieke inmenging van landen van buitenaf, zorgen voor een oneerlijk democratisch speelveld en leveren zelfs een gevaar op voor de interne democratie van een land.

 

Conclusie


We hebben heel veel uitdagingen in Tunesië. We hebben momenteel een complex politiek klimaat. We hebben zelfs onlangs een liquidatie van een politicus meegemaakt. Dat valt natuurlijk zeer te betreuren. Maar we moeten moed houden. We hebben nu een conceptversie van de nieuwe grondwet, die qua tekst niet eens zo slecht is. (Al hadden we in het verleden ook vaak grondrechtelijke teksten.) Het gaat natuurlijk om de uitvoering en handhaving van grondrechten. Hoe complex de situatie ook is, denk ik dat we op de goede weg zijn. We moeten nog wennen aan democratie. Maar het is heel mooi om te zien dat we vrij zijn, en iedereen eindelijk politiek ademt in Tunesië.

Conference on the 1713 Peace of Utrecht and its enduring effects

In 2013, the city of Utrecht commemorates the tercentenary of the “Peace of Utrecht” of 1713. One of the commemorative events of this festive year is a conference, organized by Utrecht University’s School of Law, entitled The 1713 Peace of Utrecht and its enduring effects. This multi-disciplinary conference, with contributions from renowned scholars in the fields of international law, history and international relations, will examine what the enduring effects have been of the Peace Treaties concluded at Utrecht in 1713.

The conference will take place on Thursday 19 September 2013, at Utrecht University’s Senate Hall. Speakers are Jaap de Wilde (Groningen University), Isaac Nakhimovsky (University of Cambridge), Randall Lesaffer (Tilburg University), Koen Stapelbroek (Erasmus University Rotterdam), Benno Teschke (University of Sussex), Sundhya Pahuja (University of Melbourne), Martti Koskenniemi (University of Helsinki), Jennifer Pitts (University of Chicago), and Nicholas Rengger (Univ. of St Andrews).

More detailed information, including the full programme of the conference, can be found on the conference’s website: http://www.uu.nl/utrechtpeace2013. On the website you will further find a registration form, as well as more information on hotel accommodation in Utrecht, et cetera.

For more information, please do not hesitate to contact the organizers at utrechtpeace2013@uu.nl.

Conference on Interpretation in International Law at University of Cambridge, August 27, 2013

The relevance of interpretation to the academic study and professional practice of international law is inescapable. Yet interpretation in international law has not traditionally been examined as a distinct field. Given that international law is constituted, in practical terms, by acts of interpretation, there is a need for greater methodological awareness of interpretive theory and practice in international law.

The ‘Interpretation in International Law’ conference at the University of Cambridge in August 2013 aims to attract submissions focusing on the divergent processes of interpretation that exist in international law, whether these be differentiated linguistically, culturally, politically or socially.

Submissions will be encouraged that deal with the interpretation process per se, as well as the place of interpretive process within the larger scheme of international law (such as divergent interpretations of concrete provisions, or the impact of interpretation on the sources of international law). The conference welcomes submissions from both philosophical and practical perspectives ensuring exposure of ideas and concepts that may otherwise have been confined to their own sub-fields.

The following speakers will give keynote presentations:

  • Sir David Baragwanath (President, Special Tribunal for Lebanon)
  • Professor Andrea Bianchi (The Graduate Institute, Geneva)
  • Dr Ingo Venzke (University of Amsterdam)

A wide variety of proposals are welcomed. Proposed panels include:

  • Interpretation and Legal Doctrine: this panel will highlight the doctrinal exposition of particular contested legal standards – for example, “fair and equitable treatment” and “cruel and unusual punishment” – as well as the methodologies behind such expositions in a range of international and regional courts and tribunals.
  • Interpretation and the Sources of International Law: this panel will focus on how interpretive practice interacts with, and institutes hierarchies amongst, the sources of international law. Where can the line be drawn between “dynamic” and “progressive” interpretive practice and law-making? Submissions dealing with treaty interpretation and the place of interpretation in the formation of custom are encouraged.
  • Interpretation and the Interpreters: this panel will examine how disparate interpretations of international law are granted the imprimatur by functionally specialized interpretive communities who use international law as a professional vocabulary (for example, judges, diplomats, legal advisers, arbitrators and regulators). To what extent is the interpretation of international law a competition for “semantic authority” (Ingo Venzke)?
  • Interpretation and the International Legal Order: this panel will consider the extent to which one’s interpretive posture depends on the vision of the international legal order that one advocates, such as constitutionalism or global administrative law. How are particular values, such as dignity and comity, foregrounded or neglected in the interpretive process? Do interpretive practices have the potential to bridge conceptual divides between public and private international law?
  • Interpretation and Cultural Contingency: James Crawford has recently stated that international lawyers must possess a “technique of plurilingual interpretation”. This panel will provide a forum for the exposition of culturally distinct interpretive practices, as well as a consideration of the benefits and drawbacks of divergent interpretations stemming from cultural differences.
  • Interpretation and Indeterminacy: this panel focuses on interpretation in light of the critical challenge to international law. How is interpretive practice affected by the allegation that apolitical rules are impossible and that values used to justify such rules are subjective? Given the fragmentation of international law, is an interpretive lingua franca attainable or is interpretive pluralism inevitable?

Abstract submissions must be between 300-500 words in length and should be accompanied by a short resume. Please submit your documents to cambridgeinterpretation@gmail.com. Any queries may be directed to the conference conveners, Daniel Peat (dcp31@cam.ac.uk) and Matthew Windsor (mrw48@cam.ac.uk).

The closing date for submissions is 1 May 2013. We will notify successful applicants by late May 2013, who must submit their papers by early August 2013. Conference papers should be between 6,000 and 10,000 words. Selected submissions will be considered for publication in an edited volume on the conference theme.

Venice Academy of Human Rights 2013

The Venice Academy of Human Rights will take place from 8 – 19 July 2013.
The theme of this year’s academy is ‘Obligations of States’

Online registration is open until 5 May 2013.

You can view the detailed programme here.

Faculty of the Venice Academy 2013

General Course
Jeremy Waldron
University Professor, New York University School of Law

Christian Reus-Smit
Professor of International Relations at the University of Queensland

Malcolm Shaw
Senior Fellow at the Lauterpacht Centre for International Law and Research Professor (formerly Sir Robert Jennings Chair) in International Law at the University of Leicester

Brigitte Stern
Professor of International Law at the University of Paris I, Panthéon-Sorbonne

Françoise Tulkens
former Judge and Vice-President of the European Court of Human Rights

Neil Walker
Regius Professor of Public Law and the Law of Nature and Nations at the School of Law, University of Edinburgh

Key Facts

Participants: Academics, practitioners and PhD/JSD students
Type of courses: Lectures, elective seminars and optional workshops
Number of hours: 24 hours of compulsory courses (plenum), min. 16 hours of elective and optional courses (smaller groups)
Location: Monastery of San Nicolò, Venice – Lido, Italy
Fees: 600 €

Venice Academy of Human Rights
The Venice Academy of Human Rights is an international programme of excellence for human rights education, research and debate. It forms part of the European Inter-University Centre for Human Rights and Democratisation (EIUC).

The Academy offers interdisciplinary thematic programmes open to academics, practitioners and doctoral students with an advanced knowledge of human rights.

A maximum of 60 participants will be selected.

Participants attend morning lectures, afternoon seminars and workshops and can exchange views, ideas and arguments with leading international scholars and experts. This includes the opportunity to present and discuss their own “work in progress” such as drafts of articles, chapters of doctoral theses or books and other projects.

At the end of the programme, participants receive a Certificate of Attendance issued by the Venice Academy of Human Rights.

New issue of the Goettingen Journal of International Law

A new issue of the Goettingen Journal of International Law has just been published. In Volume 4, No 3 (2012), you may find eight different articles, the first one is written by Jochen von Bernstoff and analyzes Georg Jellinek’s ideas on State sovereignty as well as his concept of ‘auto-limitations’ in the 20th century. Further on, there are two articles on the principles of international criminal law, and three articles on the impact of human rights on international and national developments. Amongst these three is the article written by the winner of the annual Student Essay Competition, Roee Ariav, and an article that deals with the issue of so called ‘land grabbing’ in Sub-Saharan Africa, written by Semahagn Gashu Abebe.

How to introduce a new term to the jargon of international law: “world law” as example

In a recent Dutch article on world law, the term (“wereldrecht” in Dutch) was defined as “a collection of norms of public international law, based on global values, accepted and recognized by the international community as a whole, compliance with which is seen as a legal interest of the same community.”

So is this what the term “world law” means? There is lots of competition. Earlier examples where the same term was introduced give an entirely different meaning to it. For example, in a most interesting article, with the beautiful title “The Dawn of World Law” (“De dageraad van het wereldrecht”, see p. 486), published in 1899 (!!), we read that “the idea of ‘world law’ is most fully realized when all different local laws are replaced by one uniform law.” Interestingly, the article is referring to private international law, and the need to harmonize national private law, or come up with universally applicable rules of private international law, i.e. world law. It thus has little to do with the law governing relations between States, i.e. public international law.

 A few years later (in 1911), Bridgman introduced the term “world law” as “the official declaration of the will of the world”, and he introduced a set of international treaties that together constituted this will of the world. His book was entitled The First Book of World Law: a Compilation of the International Conventions to Which the Principal Nations Are Signatory, with a Survey of Their Significance (Boston: Ginn & Company 1911). This title already explains his entire theory: world law is thus a compilation of the international conventions to which the principal States are signatory. Bridgman focused on the number of signatures, not on the substantive character of the norms of world law (e.g. their relationship with global values).

The most famous post-war elaboration of the concept of “world law” is undoubtedly the book by Grenville Clark and Louis Sohn, entitled World Peace through World Law. Clark and Sohn defined world law as “law that applies equally to all peoples and all individuals in the world.” They referred to the Charter of the United Nations.

Let’s refer to one last attempt to claim the same term. Angelika Emmerich-Fritsche published a book in 2007 of more than 1000 pages, entitled Vom Völkerrecht zum Weltrecht (from international law to world law). Emmerich-Fritsche defined world law as ‘Weltbürgerrecht’ (world citizen law). This concept referred to relationships between all individuals in this world, instead of relations between States. However, she did not use it as a term of private international law, but rather as the beginning of a new kind of international law, with a much less exclusive role for States.

World Law is a great term, which must find a place in the jargon of international legal studies. But who decides what it means?

Judge Peter Kooijmans

One of the greatest Dutch international lawyers that ever lived, a true successor of Hugo Grotius, Judge Peter Kooijmans, passed away on Wednesday, 13 February 2013. In 1996, Kooijmans was elected to the International Court of Justice (ICJ). He retired in 2006, after having served a full term of nine years. Before that he was Professor of Public International Law at Leiden University for decades. In fact, he started as early as in the 1960s, and wrote a handbook which is still in use today. Besides being an academic, he was also a politician, serving as Minister for Foreign Affairs in 1993 and 1994. He was also active for the United Nations, most importantly as UN Special Rapporteur on torture with the UN Commission on Human Rights. I had the pleasure of meeting him in person numerous times. The first time was when he attended a national workshop through which my PhD supervisors – Prof. Nico Schrijver and Dr. Koos van der Bruggen – and myself wanted to introduce our research topic, the role of the United Nations in the evolution of global values, to the Dutch academic community. I remember when he walked into the room, everybody was honored by his presence. He was a very tall man, and thus he had no difficulty standing out from any crowd! He will be greatly missed.

Unique case against Shell – the first Dutch foreign direct liability case

Guest post by Marie-José van der Heijden

Dutch court holds Nigerian subsidiary of Shell civilly liable for oil pollution in Nigeria

On 30 January 2013, the Dutch district court of The Hague has held a Nigerian subsidiary of Shell, Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria (SPDC) Ltd., civilly liable for oil pollution near the community Ikot Ada Ido in Nigeria. Five cases against the multinational Shell were brought before the Dutch court by Milieudefensie (the Dutch branch of Friends of the Earth) and four Nigerian farmers. The Dutch court dismissed all the other four claims against Shell. Notably, the Shell parent companies are not held liable. However, in one case Shell must pay compensation to the Nigerian farmer and fisherman Mr. Akpan, who sustained damages because of the two oil leakages of the oil installation of the operator SPDC. The amount of the compensation will be fixed in a separate procedure. Parties may appeal the decisions.

(District Court of The Hague 30 January 2013, LJN BY9854, available at: http://www.rechtspraak.nl; see also BY9850 and BY9845.)

Several years ago, four Nigerians joined by Milieudefensie brought proceedings against four legal persons of Shell with headquarters in The Hague before the Dutch district court. They claimed that Shell is responsible for the oil pollution near their villages in Nigeria (para. 3). Four oil leakages caused the sustained environmental damage. However, the court held that the oil leakages were not caused by alleged negligent maintenance by Shell, but the leakages were caused by sabotage by third parties. As Nigerian law applied to the case – for the damages were sustained in Nigeria – civil liability of the Shell companies had to be decided according to Nigerian tort law. With regard to the oil leakages near the village of Goi in 2004 and near the village of Oruma in 2005 respectively, SPDC had taken sufficient measures to prevent sabotage to its underground oil pipes. In case of sabotage, the main Nigerian legal rule is that the operator is not liable for the damage (para. 4.40). In accordance with this rule, the Dutch court therefore dismissed the claims in these four cases against Oguru, Efanga, and Dooh.

On the other hand, with regard to the two oil leakages near the village of Ikot Ada Udo the court held that SPDC breached its duty of care under the tort of negligence. In that case, the sabotage by tampering of the wellhead could have been easily done by applying a wrench to the valves. In Nigerian law, the operator can however be held liable in case of sabotage in case the operator has taken insufficient measures to limit or mitigate the risk of sabotage of a specific oil pipe of the oil installation. According to the court the requirements to hold an operator liable in case of sabotage are found in the Nigerian precedent or legal authority of Shell Petroleum Development Company (Nigeria) Limited v Otoko (1990): ‘the operator must have foreseen the sabotage and should have taken measures to prevent it.’ (para. 4.41) In this case, the court held that both requirements of foreseeability and proximity were satisfied (para. 4.42-43). Access to the installation and the valves to open the pipe above ground was free and unprotected against saboteurs since 1959 or 1960. SPDC should have known that there is a high risk of sabotage of the installation above ground under these specific conditions (4.43). More and better precautionary measures should have been taken such as securing the wellhead as was done in 2010 only after the case had been brought to the Dutch court (para. 4.43-44). Consequently, the court finds that it is fair, just and reasonable to establish that the SPDC had a specific duty of care vis-à-vis the people surrounding the installation and in particular to the farmers and fishermen like Akpan, a duty that was breached (4.45). If the wellhead had been sufficiently secured, the oil leakages of 2006 en 2007 would not have occurred and hence Akpan would not have sustained damages. Thus, SPDC was held civilly liable on negligence (para. 4.45).

In a separate procedure, the amount of compensation to be paid to Mr. Akpan will be established.

In these five cases, the Nigerian claimants were joined by the NGO Milieudefensie. According to Dutch law, a foundation or association, such as Milieudefensie, can bring claims against Shell on the basis of Art. 3:305a Dutch Civil Code (BW), the representative group action (para. 4.11). According to the court, Milieudefensie could represent the environment interests in Nigeria before the Dutch court on this legal basis. As this provision is part of Dutch civil procedural law, the admissibility question was therefore not decided under Nigerian but under Dutch law. The court held that all the legal requirements to legally represent the Nigerian environmental interests were satisfied (paras. 4.12-13). In particular, the court took into account that the case consists of similar claims of many Nigerians. Thus, collective or mass litigation would be less burdensome, compared to individual litigation (para. 4.12). Yet, Nigerian law is the applicable law regarding the substantive law issues (paras. 4.8-9). Hence, the liability question regarding the NGO should be decided by applying Nigerian tort law. Under Nigerian tort law, the Shell companies did however not breach a duty of care vis-à-vis Milieudefensie. Thus, all claims of Milieudefensie were dismissed (para. 4.35).

These cases against Shell for oil pollution in Nigeria are often referred to as foreign direct liability cases, as multinational corporations are being held liable for environmental or human rights violations in the host States (in this case: Nigeria) before the courts of their home States (in this case: Netherlands, as jurisdiction in which Shell has its headquarters), in which the parent companies are incorporated or have their headquarters. This case is a unique case in the sense that it is the first time a multinational is being held accountable and liable for overseas’ violations before Dutch civil courts. However, as stated, only the Nigerian subsidiary is held liable, not the parent companies. Under Nigerian law and under many common law jurisdictions, the Dutch court held that the parent companies generally have no legal duty to prevent (overseas’) damage to third parties by their subsidiaries (paras. 4.24 and 4.26-4.32). Moreover, there were no facts or circumstances to deviate from this principle (paras. 4.24 and 4.33, referring to the English Chandler v. Cape PLC case).[1] In sum, the Dutch Shell Nigeria case is no doubt a landmark case, though it is no clear victory for the NGO and the Nigerian farmers, who principally aimed to hold the parent companies responsible for the damages. Whether the result would have been different if Dutch law applied remains one of the yet unanswered questions.

Marie-José van der Heijden is an assistant professor at the Molengraaff Institute for Private Law, Utrecht University.


[1] See for facts and circumstances that may deviate from the main principle, the British case: Chandler v. Cape PLC, referred to in para. 4.27-28 LJN BY9854.

Breaking new ground: the The Hague district court’s ruling in the Shell Nigeria case

Guest post by Liesbeth Enneking

On January 30th, the The Hague district court rendered a verdict in five civil liability procedures that had been brought by a number of Nigerian farmers and the Dutch NGO Milieudefensie against Royal Dutch Shell (RDS) and its Nigerian subsidiary Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria (SPDC). The reasons for these procedures were four incidents in which oil had spilled from SPDC-operated pipelines in the Nigerian Niger Delta, causing damage to the neighbouring farmers’ lands and fishponds, compromising their livelihoods. The plaintiffs had asked the court, among other things, for a declaratory judgment holding that the defendant companies had acted unlawfully towards them and could be held liable for the resulting damage.

In its ruling, the district court dismissed the plaintiffs’ claims in four of the five procedures. On the basis of the evidence presented to it, the court came to the conclusion that the oil spills were a result of sabotage, and not a result of faulty maintenance as had been argued by the plaintiffs. This, in combination with the fact that under Nigerian law the operator of an oil pipeline is not liable, in principle, for harm resulting from oil spills caused by sabotage, led the court to dismiss the claims against SPDC. It also dismissed the claims against the parent company RDS, finding that under Nigerian tort law a parent company does not in principle have a legal obligation to prevent its subsidiaries from causing harm to third parties except under special circumstances, which the court did not find to exist.

In the fifth procedure, however, which related to two oil spills in 2006 and 2007 from an abandoned wellhead near the village of Ikot Ada Udo, the The Hague district court did grant the plaintiff’s claims, albeit only in part, ordering SPDC to pay compensation for the resulting loss. Although starting from the assumption that the immediate cause of the oil spills had been sabotage, the court in this specific case decided that SPDC was liable for the damage caused to the plaintiff’s crops and fishponds as a result of the oil spills. According to the court, SPDC had been negligent in leaving behind the wellhead without adequately securing it, thus making it simple for saboteurs to unscrew its valves. This led the court to conclude that in failing to take sufficient precautions against the risk of sabotage, SPDC had violated the duty of care it owed to neighbouring farmers.

On this basis, the The Hague district court concluded last Wednesday that SPDC had committed the tort of negligence viz-à-viz one of the farmers involved in the dispute and can be held liable for the damage he has suffered as a result. The exact amount of the compensation that is to be paid will be established in follow-up proceedings for the determination of damages. Notwithstanding the fact that all other claims made by the Nigerian farmers and Milieudefensie in these procedures have been dismissed, including those against the parent company RDS, The Hague district court’s ruling is groundbreaking.

Over the past two decades, Western societies around the world have seen a trend towards transboundary civil liability cases against (the parent companies of) multinational corporations. These so-called ‘foreign direct liability cases’ are typically brought before Western society courts by citizens from developing host countries who have suffered harm as a result of those multinationals’ local activities there. The main reason for pursuing these claims is that the host country plaintiffs are typically unable to address and obtain redress for the harm caused to them in their own countries before their local courts.

The reasons for this include the fact that they may not expect to receive a fair trial by an impartial court locally, that the local legal system may not be up to dealing with such complicated claims, that the local subsidiary may have ceased to exist or that they seek to hold the parent company accountable so as to make a statement and perhaps bring about structural changes in the multinational’s environmental, health & safety, human rights and/or labour policies.

The vast majority of these cases have so far been pursued in the US, where an obscure 1789 federal statute called the Alien Tort Statute (ATS) has since its ‘rediscovery’ in the 1980s provided non-US citizens (‘aliens’) with a legal basis for bringing before US federal courts civil liability claims relating to international human rights violations perpetrated anywhere in the world. A high-profile example are the claims against a large group of multinationals including General Motors, IBM and DaimlerChrysler for their alleged involvement in human rights violations perpetrated by the South African Apartheid regime.

In the spring of 2013, the US Supreme Court is expected to consider a number of fundamental questions relating to the interpretation of the ATS, including its applicability in foreign direct liability cases, in the case of Kiobel v. Shell. This case relates to Shell’s alleged involvement in human rights violations perpetrated by the Nigerian military regime in the 1990s against environmental activists who were protesting against the environmental degradation caused by oil exploration activities in the Nigerian Niger Delta.

Also in other Western societies such as Australia, Canada and the UK courts have been asked to deal with claims by plaintiffs from developing host countries who seek to address and obtain redress for harm caused to people and planet there by multinationals that are incorporated or headquartered in or otherwise connected to the forum country. Due to a lack of an ATS-equivalent, these non-US foreign direct liability claims have typically been pursued on the basis of general principles of tort law and the tort of negligence in particular. Recent examples include the Probo Koala toxic waste dumping incident, which led not only to the criminal prosecution of the international oil trading company Trafigura in the Netherlands but also to the pursuit of civil claims against Trafigura before the London High Court by a large group of Ivorian citizens. A group action brought against Shell by 11,000 Nigerians from the Bodo community in relation to two serious oil-spill incidents in the Niger Delta is currently pending before that same court.

The foreign direct liability claims against Shell in which the The Hague district court has now rendered a verdict are the first to have been brought before a court in the Netherlands, a fact that makes them unique. Already in 2009, the court issued a ruling stating that it had jurisdiction not only over the Netherlands-based parent company but also over the Nigerian subsidiary, due to the close connection between the claims against both entities. Even regardless of their outcome, the fact that the plaintiffs have succeeded in bringing their foreign direct liability claims against RDS and SPDC before the The Hague district court is a novelty that may signal to other plaintiffs in potential future cases that it is possible to bring this type of claim in the Netherlands. This is especially important at a time when controversy surrounding the ATS is increasing, rendering it a less reliable basis for future foreign direct liability claims.

What is also novel is the fact that the The Hague district court has rendered a ruling on the merits of these claims. Of all of the foreign direct liability cases that have been brought in other Western societies so far, only a handful have reached the trial stage; the far majority have either been dismissed at a preliminary (pre-trial) stage or settled out of court. Of course, what makes this case particularly salient is the fact that SPDC, Shell’s Nigerian subsidiary, has been held liable by the court for having failed to exercise proper care towards (one of) the plaintiffs, and has been ordered to pay compensation for the damage suffered. Although this may not seem like such a sweeping result, it is one of the very first instances that a corporate entity within a multinational group, albeit a subsidiary, has been held liable in a foreign direct liability claim.

As regards the issue of parent company liability, which is particularly interesting from a legal perspective as it is a relatively novel and uncharted concept, the court leaves the door ajar. It has explicitly rejected Shell’s contention that the plaintiffs’ claims against the parent company RDS were manifestly prospectless. According to the court, a parent company may under certain circumstances be held liable under Nigerian (and English) tort law for harm caused to third parties by the activities of its subsidiaries, as is made clear by a recent case in the UK in which a parent company was held liable for asbestos-related injuries suffered by an employee of one of its subsidiaries. The court also considers, however, that under the particular circumstances of these claims (including the court’s conclusion that the spills were caused by sabotage), there is no reason to depart from the general principle in Nigerian (and English) tort law that there is no general duty of care to prevent others from suffering harm as a result of the activities of third parties.

All in all, even though the The Hague district court’s ruling in the Shell Nigeria case does not necessarily set a precedent in a strictly legal sense (due to the fact that it is a rendered by a Dutch court on the basis of Nigerian tort law), it is likely to have a broad impact. It represents another step on a path that leads from soft law standards on the social responsibilities of internationally operating business enterprises towards hard law consequences. Moreover, it will provide a signal to legal practitioners, legal academics and especially Western society courts dealing with this type of claims that the trend towards these foreign direct liability cases is a real one. After all, it shows that both subsidiaries and parent companies of Western society-based multinationals may be held accountable before courts in their home countries, not only in principle but also in practice. This message is likely to strike a note not only among lawyers, but also among multinationals, NGOs, policymakers and the general public in both developing host countries and Western society home countries.

Liesbeth Enneking is a postdoctoral research fellow at UCALL, Utrecht University’s Centre for Accountability and Liability Law. In May 2012, she defended her PhD thesis on foreign direct liability and the role of tort law in promoting international corporate social responsibility and accountability. The text of this blog will be incorporated into an article on this issue; please do not quote without prior permission from the author.

Vacancy Managing Editor at the Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights

The Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights, one of the world’s leading peer reviewed
journals, is looking for a new managing editor for a period of at least one and-
a-half years.

Function Description

The managing editor of the Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights (NQHR) is
responsible for the coordination and management of the entire publication process,
starting at the receipt of a new submission all the way through to sending the final
version of each edition to the publisher. The managing editor works closely with the
editorial board, prepares and takes minutes at the editorial board’s meetings, and
executes the editorial board’s decisions. The managing editor also has close contact
with authors and the external peer review board. The majority of managing editor’s
tasks are performed online but it is imperative that the managing editor be present for
the editorial board meetings, which are held 5-6 times per year.

Function Requirements

The successful candidate will have the following experience and skills:

  • Ability to communicate professionally in writing;
  • Ability to oversee and coordinate lengthy, time-sensitive and complex
  • processes;
  • Native-level English skills;
  • Ability to work with precision, diligence and speed;
  • Previous experience or affinity with editing and/or publishing of academic
  • writing;
  • Based in the Netherlands.

Institution Description

The Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights, published by Intersentia, focuses on all
matters dealing with international human rights. The NQHR is closely linked with the
Netherlands Institute of Human Rights (SIM) at Utrecht University.

Further Information

  • Start date: 1 June 2013 (but must be able to attend trainings in March,
  • April and May of 2013).
  • Type: Part-time (approximately 1,5 days a week).
  • Remuneration: A moderate stipend is available. Formal employment with the
  • university is not available.
  • Applicants due by: 15 February 2013.
  • Contact: Laura Henderson at L.M.Henderson@uu.nl

Please send a cover letter (maximum one page) and CV to Laura Henderson
(L.M.Henderson@uu.nl).